INTRODUCTION
International criminal law deals with the criminal responsibility of individuals for international crimes. There is no generally accepted definition of international crimes. A distinction can be made between international crimes which are based on international customary law and therefore apply universally and crimes resulting from specific treaties which criminalize certain conduct and require the contracting states to implement legislation for the criminal prosecution of this conduct in their domestic legal system. The international core crimes - crimes over which international tribunals have been given jurisdiction under international law - are: genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and aggression. International criminal law finds its origin in both international law and criminal law and closely relates to other areas of international law. The most important areas are human rights law and international humanitarian law as well as the law on state responsibility. The sources of international criminal law are the same as those of general international law mentioned in article 38(1) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice: treaties, international customary law, general principles of law, judicial decisions and writings of eminent legal scholars. The Nuremberg and Tokyo trials signaled the birth of present-day international criminal law, i.e., the prosecution of individuals for international crimes before international tribunals. In the early nineties of the previous century international criminal law received a major stimulus with the establishment of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda by the United Nations Security Council. The creation of various internationalized or mixed criminal courts and the proposals of the International Law Commission, which resulted in the creation of the International Criminal Court in 2002, contributed to the rapid development of international criminal law during the last two decades.
This Guide is intended as a starting point for research in the field of International Criminal Law. It provides the basic legal materials available in the Peace Palace Library, both in print and electronic format. Handbooks, leading articles, bibliographies, periodicals, serial publications and documents of interest are presented in the Selective Bibliography section. Links to the PPL Catalogue are inserted. The Library's subject heading (keyword) International Criminal Law is instrumental for searching through the Catalogue. Special attention is given to our subscriptions on databases, e-journals, e-books and other electronic resources. Finally, this Research Guide features links to relevant websites and other online resources of particular interest.
LIBRARIAN'S CHOICE
SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sources of international criminal law
Treaties
Case-law
- Cassese, A., D. Scalia, V. Thalmann et M.-L. Hebert-Dolbec, Les grands arrêts de droit international pénal, 2e edition, Paris, Dalloz, 2021.
- Cassese, A. (et al.), International Criminal Law: Cases and Commentary, London, Oxford University Press, 2011.
- International Courts Association, International Courts and Tribunals Cases Series, The Hague, ICA Press, 2011-.
- Jalloh, C.C. (ed.), The Law Reports of the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2 vols), Leiden, Nijhoff, 2012.
- Klip, A., and G. Sluiter/S. Freeland (eds.), Annotated Leading Cases of International Criminal Tribunals, Cambridge, Intersentia, 1999 - ... .
- Laucci, C., Digest of Jurisprudence of the Special Court for Sierra Leone 2003 – 2005, Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2007.
- Malcolm, H. (ed.), The International Criminal Law Reports, London : Cameron May, 2000 - ... .
- Paust, J.J. (et al.), International Criminal Law: Cases and Materials (4th ed.), Durham, NC, Carolina Academic Press, (forthcoming May 2013).
- Tams, C.J. (et al.), Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide: A Commentary, München/Oxford, C.H. Beck/Hart, 2014.
- Wise, E.M., E.S. Podgor and R.S. Clark, International Criminal Law: Cases and Materials (3rd ed.), New Providence, NJ, LexisNexis, 2009.
UN Declarations and Resolutions
Soft law
Reference works
- Ambos, K., Treatise on International Criminal Law (3 vols), Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013-.
- Boas, G. (et al.), International Criminal Procedure, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011.
- Brown, B.S. (ed.), Research Handbook on International Criminal Law (3rd ed.), Cheltenham, Elgar, 2011.
- Cassese, A. (et al.), Cassese's International Criminal Law (3rd ed.), Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013.
- Cherif Bassiouni, M. (et al.) (eds.), Introduction to International Criminal Law (2nd rev. ed.), Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2012.
- Corten, O., F. Dubuisson, V. Koutroulis and A. Lagerwall, A Critical Introduction to International Law, Bruxelles, Editions de l'Université de Bruxelles, 2019.
- Cryer, R., An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure (3rd ed.), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2014.
- Dixon, R., and K.A.A. Kahn, Archbold : International Criminal Courts Practice, Procedure and Evidence (4th ed.), London, Sweet & Maxwell, 2013.
- Klamberg, M. (ed.), Commentary on the law of the International Criminal Court, Brussels, Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, 2017.
- Knoops, G.-J., An Introduction to the Law of International Criminal Tribunals: A Comparative Study (2nd ed.), Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2014.
- Llewellyn, H., An institutional perspective on the United Nations criminal tribunals: governance, independence, and impartiality, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2021.
- Malekian, F., Jurisprudence of international Criminal Justice, Newcastle upon Tyne : Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014.
- O’Keefe, R., International Criminal Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2015.
- Safferling, C. (et al.) (eds.), International Criminal Procedure, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2012.
- Schabas, W.A., International Criminal Law (3 vols) Cheltenham, Elgar, 2012.
- Sluiter, G. (et al.) (eds.), International Criminal Procedure: Principles and Rules, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013.
- Tochilovsky, V., The Law and Jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunals and Courts: Procedure and Human Rights Aspects (2nd ed.), Cambridge, Intersentia, 2014.
- Werle, G., and F. Jessberger, Principles of International Criminal Law (3rd ed.), Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2014.
Selected books and articles
- Bachvarova, T.,The standing of victims in the procedural design of the International Criminal Court, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2017.
- Bock, S. and E. Conze (eds), Rethinking the Crime of Aggression: International and Interdisciplinary Perspectives, The Hague, Asser Press; Heidelberg, Springer, 2022.
- Böse, M., M. Bohlander, A. Klip, O. Lagodny (eds.), Justice without borders: essays in honour of Wolfgang Schomburg, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2018.
- DeGuzman, M.M. and Oosterveld, V. (eds,), The Elgar Companion to the International Criminal Court, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2020.
- Jalloh, C.C., The International Criminal Court and Africa, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017.
- Kastner, P., International criminal law in context, Abingdon, Oxon : New York, NY, Routledge, 2018.
- King, K.L. and J.D. Meernik, The witness experience: testimony at the ICTY and its impact, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2017.
- Kloss, B., The exercise of prosecutorial discretion at the International Criminal Court: towards a more principled approach, München, Herbert Utz Verlag, 2017.
- Knoops, G.-J., Mens rea at the International Criminal Court, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2017.
- Schense, J., and L. Carter (eds.), Two steps forward, one step back: the deterrent effect of international criminal tribunals, Brussels, Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, 2017.
- Taulbee, J.L., Genocide, Mass Atrocity, and War Crimes in Modern History: Blood and Conscience, Santa Barbara, California, 2017.
- Van Regemorter, M., The International Criminal Court and the right to interim release, Bruxelles, Bruylant, 2018.
- Yanev, L.D., Theories of co-perpetration in international criminal law, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2018.
- Zhu, D., China and the International Criminal Court, Singapore, Springer Singapore, 2018.
- Alamuddin, A., Jurdi, N. N. and Tolbert, D. (eds.), The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2014.
- Appazov, A., Expert Evidence and International Criminal Justice, Cham, Springer, 2016.
- Bachmann, K., Sparrow-Botero, T. and Lambertz, P., When Justice Meets Politics: Independence and Autonomy of Ad Hoc International Criminal Tribunals, Frankfurt am Main, Peter Lang, 2013.
- Banks, C. L. and Baker, J., Comparative, International and Global Justice: Perspectives from Criminology and Criminal Justice, Los Angeles, Sage, 2016.
- Benedetti, F., Bonneau, K. and Washburn, J. L., Negotiating the International Criminal Court: New York to Rome, 1994-1998, Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2014.
- Bergsmo, M., Ling, C. W. and Ping, Y. (eds.), Historical Origins of International Criminal Law, Brussels, Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, 2014, Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3 and Volume 4.
- Chamberlain Bolãnos, C., Children and the International Criminal Court: Analysis of the Rome Statute through a Children’s Rights Perspective, Cambridge, Intersentia, 2015.
- Ciorciari, J. D. and Heindel, A., Hybrid Justice: The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 2014.
- Clark, J. N., International Trials and Reconciliation: Assessing the Impact of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Abingdon, Routledge, 2014.
- Fichtelberg, A., Hybrid Tribunals: A Comparative Examination, New York, Springer, 2015.
- Fry, E. G., The Contours of International Prosecutions: As Defined by Facts, Charges, and Jurisdiction, The Hague, Eleven International Publishing, 2016.
- Grabert, A., Dynamic Interpretation in International Criminal Law: Striking a Balance between Stability and Change, München, Herbert Utz Verlag, 2015.
- Jain, N., Perpetrators and Accessories in International Criminal Law: Individual Modes of Responsibility for Collective Crimes, Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2014.
- Jalloh, C.C. (ed.), The Sierra Leone Special Court and Its Legacy: The Impact for Africa and International Criminal Law, New York, NY, Cambridge University Press, 2014.
- Kemp, G., Individual Criminal Liability for the International Crime of Aggression (2nd ed.), Cambridge, Intersentia, 2016.
- Klamberg, M., Evidence in International Criminal Trials: Confronting Legal Gaps and the Reconstruction of Disputed Events, Leiden, Nijhoff, 2013.
- Krabbe, M., Excusable Evil: An Analysis of Complete Defenses in International Criminal Law, Cambridge, Intersentia, 2014.
- McDermott, Y., Fairness in International Criminal Trials, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2016.
- Meierhenrich, J. (ed.), Genocide: A Reader, New York, Oxford University Press, 2014.
- Minow, M., The First Global Prosecutor: Promise and Constraints, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 2015.
- Namakula. C. S., Language and the Right to Fair Hearing in International Criminal Trials, Cham, Springer, 2014.
- Novak, A., The International Criminal Court: An Introduction, Charm, Springer, 2015.
- Stahn, C. (ed.), The Law and Practice of the International Criminal Court, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2015.
- Steinberg, R. H. (ed.), Contemporary Issues Facing the International Criminal Court, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2016.
- Tochilovsky, V., The Law and Jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunals and Courts: Procedure and Human Rights Aspects, Cambridge, Intersentia, 2013.
Periodicals, serial publications
- African Journal of International Criminal Justice: Table of Contents
- Criminal Law Forum: Table of Contents
- Gender Report Card on the International Criminal Court: Gender Report Card 2014
- Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal: Table of Contents
- Genocide Studies International: Table of Contents
- Hague Justice Journal (Publication ceased in 2010)
- International Criminal Law Review
- International Journal of Transitional Justice: Table of Contents
- Journal of International Criminal Justice
- Journal of Genocide Research: Table of Contents
- Revue Internationale de Droit Pénal: Table of Contents
- WCRO Reports on Early Issues before the International Criminal Court
- Anckarsäter, H. (et al.), “Mental Health and International Crimes”, in I. Bantekas and E. Mylonaki (eds.), Criminological Approaches to International Criminal Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2014, pp. 263-286.
- Bernaz, N., “Corporate Criminal Liability under International Law: The New TV S.A.L. and Akhbar Beirut S.A.L. Cases at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, 13 (2015), No. 2, pp. 313-330.
- Borda, A. Z., “How Do International Judges Approach Competing Precedent? An Analysis of the Practice of International Criminal Courts and Tribunals in Relation to Substantive Law”, International Criminal Law Review, 15 (2015), No. 1, pp. 124-146.
- Bufalini, A., “The Principle of Legality and the Role of Customary International Law in the Interpretation of the ICC Statute”, The Law and Practice of International Courts and Tribunals: A Practitioners’ Journal, 14 (2015), No. 2, pp. 233-254.
- Cimiotta, E., “The First Steps of the Extraordinary African Chambers: A New Mixed Criminal Tribunal”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, 13 (2015), No. 1, pp. 177-197.
- Clarke, K. M., “Refiguring the Perpetrator: Culpability, History and International Criminal Law’s Impunity Gap”, The International Journal of Human Rights, 19 (2015), No. 5, pp. 592-614.
- Combs, N. A., “Seeking Inconsistency: Advancing Pluralism in Criminal Sentencing”, Yale Journal of International Law, 41 (2016), No. 1, pp. 1-49.
- Davidson, C., “Explaining Inhumanity: The Use of Crime-Definition Experts at International Criminal Courts”, Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, 48 (2015), No. 2, pp. 359-425.
- Ford, S., “The Complexity of International Criminal Trials is Necessary”, The George Washington International Law Review, 48 (2015), No. 1, pp. 151-201.
- Freckelton, I. and Karagiannakis, M., "Fitness to Stand Trial under International Criminal Law", in Mackay, R. and Brookbanks, W. (eds.), Fitness to plead: international and comparative perspectives, Oxford, United Kingdom, Oxford University Press, 2018, pp. 273-297.
- Freeman, L., “Digital Evidence and War Crimes Prosecutions: The Impact of Digital Technologies on International Criminal Investigations and Trials” Fordham International Law Journal, 41 (2018) No. 2, pp. 283-335.
- Gil Gil, A., “Current Trends in the Definition of "Perpetrator" by the International Criminal Court: From the Decision on the Confirmation of Charges in the Lubanga Case to the Katanga Judgment”, Leiden Journal of International Law, 28 (2015), No. 2, pp. 349-371.
- Goetz, M., “Reparative Justice at the International Criminal Court: Best Practice or Tokenism?”, in J.-A.M. Wemmers (ed.), Reparation for Victims of Crimes against Humanity: The Healing Role of Reparation, London, Routledge, 2014, pp. 53-70.
- Groome, D., “Evidence in Cases of Mass Criminality”, in I. Bantekas and E. Mylonaki (eds.), Criminological Approaches to International Criminal Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2014, pp. 117-158.
- Hale, K. and Cline, D., “Holding Collectives Accountable”, Criminal Law Forum, 25 (2014), No. 1-2, pp. 261-290.
- Hamilton, T., “Case Admissibility at the International Criminal Court”, The Law and Practice of International Courts and Tribunals: A Practitioners’ Journal, 14 (2015), No. 2, pp. 305-317.
- Jalloh, C.C., and A. Dibella, “Equality of Arms in International Criminal Law: Continuing Challenges”, in W.A. Schabas (et al.) (eds.), The Ashgate Research Companion to International Criminal Law, Farnham, Ashgate, 2013, pp. 251-287.
- Kelder, J. M., Holá, B. and Van Wijk, J., “Rehabilitation and Early Release of Perpetrators of International Crimes: A Case Study of the ICTY and ICTR”, International Criminal Law Review, 14 (2014), No. 6, pp. 1177-1203.
- Knoops, G. A., “Pursuing the ICC Crime of Aggression: Law or Politics?”, Justice, 56 (2015), pp. 26-33.
- Kyriakakis, J., “International Legal Personality, Collective Entities, and International Crimes”, in N. Gal-Or, C. Ryngaert and M. Noortmann (eds.), Responsibilities of the Non-State Actor in Armed Conflict and the Market Place: Theoretical Considerations and Empirical Findings, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2015, pp. 79-104.
- Lovat, H., International Criminal Tribunal Backlash (September 2018). in: Heller, Mégret, Nouwen, Ohlin, Robinson (eds), Oxford Handbook of International Criminal Law (Oxford University Press, Forthcoming 2019). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3253050
- Mohamad, R., “Access to International Justice: The Role of the International Criminal Court in Aiding National Prosecutions of International Crimes”, in P. Keyzer, V. Popovski and C. Sampford, Access to International Justice, London, Routledge, 2015, pp. 35-46.
- Nemane, V. V. and Gunjal, I. D., “Article 124 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: “Transitional Provision” or “The Right to (Convenient) Opt-out”", International Criminal Law Review, 15 (2015), No. 5, pp. 949-969.
- Post, H., “Reflections on the Future of International Criminal Law”, in K. Wellens (ed.), International Law in Silver Perspective: Challenges Ahead, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2015, pp. 57-95.
- Roberts, P., “The Priority of Procedure and the Neglect of Evidence and Proof: Facing Facts in International Criminal Law”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, 13 (2015), No. 3, pp. 479-506.
- Rosenberg, S. P., “Audacity of Hope: International Criminal Law, Mass Atrocity Crimes, and Prevention”, in S. P. Rosenberg, T. Galis, A. Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, New York, NY, Cambridge University Press, pp. 151-174.
- Soufi, J. and Maurice, S., “Structure, Functions and Initial Achievements of the Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals”, International Criminal Law Review, 15 (2015), No. 3, pp. 544-564.
- Werle, G. and Burghardt, B., “Establishing Degrees of Responsibility: Modes of Participation in Article 25 of the ICC Statute”, in E. Van Sliedregt and S. Vasiliev, Pluralism in International Criminal Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2014, pp. 301-319.
Bibliographies
- Aspegren, L., International Criminal Law and the Genocide in Rwanda, Raoul Wallenberg Institute for Human Rights and Humanitarian Law (RWI), Lund University, 2013. [PDF]
- Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Selected Bibliography on the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Leidschendam, Special Tribunal for Lebanon, 2014.
- United Nations Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals (MICT), Special Bibliography on ICTR, Arusha, MICT Legal Library, 2014.
EXTERNAL LINKS
International Courts and Organisations
- International Criminal Court (ICC)
- International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
- International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
- Residual Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL)
- Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL)
- Extraordinary Cambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)
- Extraordinary African Chambers within the Courts of Senegal
- War Crimes Chamber (WCC), Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Special Panels for Serious Crimes (SPSC) in East Timor
- Supreme Iraqi Criminal Court (Iraqi High Tribunal)
- United Nations Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals
- United Nations War Crimes Commission (UNWCC)
- Coalition for the International Criminal Court
- United Against Genocide
- International Center for Transitional Justice (ICTJ)
- Open Society Justice Initiative
- Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice
Research Guides
- Aggression, Oxford Bibliographies
- Courts and Tribunals, Dag Hammarskjöld Library Research Guides
- International Courts, Tribunals and Truth & Reconciliation Commissions, Toronto Reference Library Blog
- International Criminal Courts for the Former Yugoslavia, Rwanda and Sierra Leone: A Guide to Online and Print Resources, Hauser Global Law School Program
- International Criminal Court - Article 98 Agreements, Georgetown University Law Library
- International Criminal Justice, Lloyd Sealy Library
- International Criminal Law, Columbia University Law School
- International Criminal Law, Florida International University
- International Criminal Law, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law
- International Criminal Law, New England School of Law Library
- International Criminal Law, Pace Law Library
- International Criminal Law, American Society of International Law
- Post-World War II Allied Trials for Axis War Crimes, University of Iowa College of Law
- UN Criminal Tribunals, Hauser Global Law School Program
- War Crimes, Georgetown University Law Library
Research and Academia
- Center for Advanced Genocide Research, University of South California
- Center for International Criminal Justice, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
- Forum for International Criminal and Humanitarian Law
- Gender Jurisprudence and International Criminal Law Project, Washington College of Law
- Genocide Studies Program, Yale University
- Genocide Watch
- The Hague Justice Portal
- International Criminal Law Forum
- International Institute for Genocide & Human Rights Studies
- International Network of Genocide Scholars
- Institute for Research of Crimes Against Humanity and International Law, Sarajevo University
- Justice Hub
- Institute for the Study of Genocide
- Publication Series and Occasional Paper Series on International Criminal Law, Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher
- War Crimes Research Group, King's College London
- War Crimes Research Office, Washington College of Law
- War Crimes Trials & Investigations interdisciplinary Research Network, Oxford University TORCH
Blogs
- Beyond The Hague
- Critical Approaches to International Criminal Law: Research Network
- Grotian Moment Blog, Case Western Reserve University School of Law
- iLawyer
- International Criminal Law Bureau Blog
- Justice in Conflict
- Spreading the Jam
Databases
- Annotated Leading Cases of International Criminal Tribunals, Intersentia.
- Commentary by renowned experts on full-text cases by International(ized) Criminal Tribunals
- Cambodia Genocide Program, MacMillan Center for International and Area Studies, Yale University
- Cambodia Tribunal Monitor
- CMN Knowledge Hub, Case Matrix Network
- Commentary on the Law of the International Criminal Court, Case Matrix Network
- Criminal Law and Procedure: Lecture Series, United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
- Electronic Information System for International Law: International Criminal Law, American Society of International Law
- Hein Online Foreign & International Law Resources Database, Hein Online
- ICTR Basic Documents and Case Law Database, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
- International Courts & Tribunals Collection, World Legal Information Institute
- International Crimes Database, T.M.C. Asser Instituut
- International Criminal Court Legal Tools Database
- International Criminal Justice Programme, Southern Africa Litigation Centre
- International Criminal Law, Oxford Reports on International Law
- The International Military Tribunal for Germany: Contents of The Nuremberg Trials Collection, Yale Law School: The Avalon Project
- The International Military Tribunal for the Far East: Judgment, HyperWar
- Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals (Selected and Prepared by the United Nations War Crimes Commission), Library of Congress: Military Legal Resources
- Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Max Planck Society
- MICT/ICTR/ICTY Case Law Database, United Nations Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals
- Multinational Report: Crimes Against Humanity Statutes and Criminal Code Provisions, Law Library of Congress: Legal Reports
- Nuremberg Trials, Library of Congress: Military Legal Resources
- Nuremberg Trials Project: A Digital Document Collection, Harvard Law School Library
- OPIL Max Planck Encyclopedias of International Law, International Criminal Court (ICC), by Dire Tladi
- Oxford Reports: International criminal law, Oxford reports
- Répertoire de droit pénal et de procédure pénale: Justice internationale pénale: crimes – Aurélien LEMASSON; Pierre TRUCHE; Pierre BOURETZ – Octobre 2019
- Répertoire de droit pénal et de procédure pénale: Justice internationale pénale: institutions – Aurélien LEMASSON – Octobre 2019
- Répertoire de droit pénal et de procédure pénale: Justice internationale pénale: procédure – Aurélien LEMASSON – Octobre 2019
- Saddam Hussein Trial, Library of Congress
- The Trial of Adolf Eichmann, Nizkor Project
- The Trial of Hissène Habré, Human Rights Watch
- United Nations War Crimes Commission Project: UNWCC Documents, Centre for International Studies and Diplomacy
- War Crimes Research Office, American University Washington College of Law