The law of international watercourses, or international water law, is an international legal framework, including both navigational and non-navigational uses, as well as its historical evolution. In recent years rules have been developed and codified through the work of the United Nations, non-governmental organizations, institutions and associations for international law, including the International Law Association (ILA) and the Institut de droit international (IDI). Central is the work of the UN International Law Commission (ILC), which led to the adoption of the Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1997. The entry into force of this convention and the recent amendment of the UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Helsinki, 17 March 1992) to open it up to non-UNECE States have given a boost to this field of international law. As water scarcity and increasing environmental pollution will inevitably result in more disputes over international watercourses in the future and, at the extreme, in armed conflict, the further codification and progressive development of the law of international watercourses is essential to prevent this.
This Research Guide is intended as a starting point for research in the field of the law of international watercourses. It provides the basic legal materials available in the Peace Palace Library, both in print and electronic format. Handbooks, leading articles, bibliographies, periodicals, serial publications and documents of interest are presented in the Selective Bibliography section. Links to the PPL Catalogue are inserted. The Library's subject heading (keyword) Water is instrumental for searching through the Catalogue. Special attention is given to our subscriptions on databases, e-journals, e-books and other electronic resources. Finally, this Research Guide features links to relevant websites and other online resources of particular interest.
Sources of international law
- McCaffrey, "The Customary Law of International Watercourses", in: Research Handbook on Freshwater Law and International Relations, Cheltenham; Northampton, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2018, pp. 147-174.
- Tignino, M. and Ö. Irmakkesen, The Geneva List of Principles on the Protection of Water Infrastructure: An Assessment and the Way Forward, Leiden, Brill, 2020.
- Tofan, C. and S. Strambu (eds.), International Water Law: Selected Documents concerning the International Rivers, Transboundary Groundwaters Lakes and Other Natural Resources, Nijmegen, Wolf Legal Publishers, 2008.
- Volume I
- Volume II
- Volume III: Regional Issues: Africa and Asia
- Volume IV: Regional Issues: Europe
- Volume V: Regional Issues: Regional issues: North and South America
Treaties
- 1997 UN Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses. Adopted by UNGA 21 May 1997; Entered into force 17 August 2014 (available in English, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese, and Arabic). See also
- UNILC's Report and Commentaries submitted to the UNGA in 1994 along with the draft articles on the law of non-navigational uses of international watercourses.
- UN Press Release on the adoption of the Convention
- Current Status of the Convention
- 1994 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Series Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa (available in English, French, Spanish, Arabic, Russian, and Chinese).
- Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, Done at Ramsar, Iran, 2 February 1971 (available at English, French, Spanish, and German).
- Convention Relating to the Development of the Hydraulic Power of International Affecting More Than One State, and Protocol of Signature. Done in Geneva, 9 December 1923
- Convention and Statute on the Regime of Navigable Waterways of International Concern. Done in Barcelona, 20 April 1921
Case-law
B. International Court of Justice
- Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia)
Judgment of 25 September 1997; ICJ documents; PPL keyword: Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia)
D. Selected books
UN Declarations and Resolutions
The resolutions and decisions of the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council may provide valuable information on water issues. Although they cannot themselves constitute international law or serve as conclusive evidence of a rule of customary law, such resolutions do have value in providing evidence of existing or emerging law. This point of view has been acknowledged by the International Law Commission.
As every Member State has been recognized and has a vote in the UN General Assembly, finding General Assembly resolutions that passed unanimously or near-unanimously may serve as an excellent starting point in the legal research process. Pay attention to the language of the resolution. Those with firm obligations versus those that are merely aspirational or advisory in nature are more likely to be considered valuable as evidence of customary international law.
→ Official Document System Search. ODS is the UN's Official Document System. You can search for UN declarations, resolutions and other documents by keywords, then narrow your search.
→ Start Your Research: (7) Resolutions and Decisions of International Organizations.
Soft law
Reference works
- A History of Water, London; New York, I.B. Tauris, 2006-2016.
- Boisson de Chazournes, L., Fresh Water in International Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2021.
- Brown-Weiss, E., International Law for a Water-Scarce World, Leiden, Nijhoff, 2013.
- Cuq, M., L'eau en droit international: convergences et divergences dans les approches juridiques, Bruxelles, Larcier, 2013.
- De Decker, Marc. Europees Internationaal Rivierenrecht. 2de volledig herziene editie, 2 delen, Maklu, 2023.
- Dinar, A. (et al.) (eds.), Bridges over Water: Understanding Transboundary Water Conflict, Negotiation and Cooperation, Singapore, World Scientific, 2013.
- Boisson de Chazournes, L. and S.M.A. Salman (eds.), Water Resources and International Law, The Hague, Nijhoff, 2005.
- McCaffrey, S.C., The Law of International Watercourses, Oxford, Oxford University Press, Third edition, 2019.
- Movilla Pateiro, L., El Derecho Internacional del Agua: los acuíferos transfronterizos, Barcelona, Bosch Editor, 2014.
- Moynihan, R., Transboundary Freshwater Ecosystems in International Law: the Role and Impact of the UNECE Environmental Regime, Cambridge; New York, Cambridge University Press, 2021.
- Sangbana, K., La protection des eaux douces transfrontières contre la pollution: dimensions normatives et institutionnelles, Genève; Zürich; Bâle, Schulthess, 2017.
- Schmeier, S., Governing International Watercourses: River Basin Organizations and the Sustainable Governance of Internationally Shared Rivers and Lakes, London, Earthscan from Routledge, 2013.
- Tanzi, A., The Consolidation of International Water Law: A Comparative Analysis of the UN and UNECE Water Conventions, Napoli, Editoriale Scientifica, 2017.
- Tanzi, A. (et al.) (eds.), The UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes: Its Contribution to International Water Cooperation, Leiden/Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2015.
Recent books and peer-reviewed articles
- Baranyai, G., European Water Law and Hydropolitics: an Inquiry into the Resilience of Transboundary Water Governance in the European Union, Cham, Springer, 2020.
- Bhandari, Surendra, and Achut Gautam. Nepal-India Frontier Diplomacy in Reference to Kali River : Perspectives of International Law. Law Associates Nepal, 2023.
- Chang, Yeonghwan. Utilization of International Watercourses on the Korean Peninsula : Challenges and Prospects. Brill Nijhoff, 2023.
- Casado Pérez, Vanessa, and Rhett Larson, editors. A Research Agenda for Water Law. Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2023.
- Chong, A., International Law for Freshwater Protection, Leiden, Brill, 2022.
- Forlati, S., M.M. Mbengue and B. McGarry (eds), The Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Judgment and its Contribution to the Development of International Law, Leiden; Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2020.
- Greco, R., The Human Right to Water and International Economic Law, Abingdon, Routledge; Torino, G. Giappichelli Editore, 2022.
- Houédanou, S.É., Droit international des aquifères transfrontières: Perspectives et opportunités de la coopération mutualisée du système aquifère de l’Iullemeden et de Taoudéni-Tanezrouft (SAIT), Paris, Éditions Mare & Martin, 2024.
- Howden, J.G., The Community of Interest Approach in International Water Law: a Legal Framework for the Common Management of International Watercourses, Leiden; Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2020.
- Liu, Yang. International Watercourses Law and Multilateral Environmental Agreements : A Case for the Integrated Protection and Preservation of Shared Inland Water Ecosystems. Brill/Nijhoff, 2024.
- Tekuya, Mahemud E. The Nile in Legal and Political Perspective : Between Change and Continuity. Brill Nijhoff, 2024.
For all peer-reviewed articles in the PPL Catalogue, click here.
Periodicals, serial publications
- International Water Law Series
- The Journal of Water Law
- Land and Water Law Review
- Land and Water Law Review (Online)
- Schrifttum und Rechtsprechung des Wasserrechts
- University of Denver Water Law Review
- Water Law
- Water Law and Indigenous Rights Studies
- Water Law Review
- Water Series (UNECE)
- Zeitschrift für Wasserrecht
Bibliographies
- Steenhard, R., International Water Law: Selective Bibliography 2014, The Hague, Peace Palace Library, 2014.
- Steenhard, R., International Water Law: Selective Bibliography 2013, The Hague, Peace Palace Library, 2013.
- Steenhard, R., International Water Law: Selective Bibliography 2012, The Hague, Peace Palace Library, 2012.
- Steenhard, R., International Water Law: Selective Bibliography 2011, The Hague, Peace Palace Library, 2011.
- Steenhard, R., "Selected Bibliography", in L. Boisson de Chazournes and S.M.A. Salman (eds.), Water Resources and International Law, The Hague, Nijhoff, 2005, pp. 605-756.
- Steenhard, R., Water Resources and International Law: Selective Bibliography, The Hague, Peace Palace Library, 2001.
- International Watercourses, by Stephen C. McCaffrey.
- International Watercourses, Environmental Protection, by Stephen C. McCaffrey.
- Equitable Utilization of Shared Resources, by Lilian Castillo-Laborde.
- Groundwater Protection, by Mechlem.
- Water, Right to, International Protection, by Eyal Benvenisti.
Search the Encyclopedias with the keyword water and you will find a variety on topics, such as Colorado River, Great Lakes, Indus Water Kishenganga Arbitration (Pakistan v India), Jordan River, Lac Lanoux Arbitration, Lake Chad, Nile River, Rio Grande, Scheldt River, Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, Zambezi River, etc.
A trusted reference work in international law, the Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, as well as the newly-launched Max Planck Encyclopedia of International Procedural Law. The two Encyclopedias can be searched and browsed together, or separately by using appropriate filters.
The Lecture Series contains a permanent collection of lectures of enduring value on virtually every subject of international law given by leading international law scholars and practitioners from different regions, legal systems, cultures and sectors of the legal profession. Lectures on the Law of International Watercourses by Stephen C. McCaffrey, Salman M.A. Salman, Chusei Yamada and Eyal Benvenisti.
- Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela)
- Autonomous Binational Authority of the Basin of Lake Titicaca (Bolivia, Peru)
- Border River Commission between Finland and Sweden (Finland, Sweden)
- Dirección Ejecutivo de la Comisión Trinaional para el Desarrollo de la Cuenca del Río Pilcomayo (Executive Directorate of the Trinational Commission for the Development of the Pilcomayo River Basin) (Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay)
- Finnish Norwegian Transboundary Water Commission (Finland, Norway)
- Genevese Aquifer Management Commission (France, Switzerland)
- Great Lakes Commission (Canada, United States)
- Guadiana River Commission (Spain, Portugal)
- Intergovernmental Coordinating Committee of the River Plate Basin Countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay)
- International Boundary and Waters Commission (United States and Mexico)
- International Commission of the Congo-Oubangui-Sangha Basin (Cameroun, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo)
- International Commission for the Protection of Lake Geneva (France, Switzerland)
- International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Ukraine)
- International Commission for the Protection of the Elbe (Germany, Czech Republic)
- International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (Germany, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland)
- International Joint Commission (United States and Canada)
- International Meuse Commission (Belgium, France)
- International Sava River Basin Commission (Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia, Yugoslavia)
- Interstate Commission for Water Coordination of Central Asia (Republic of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Republic of Uzbekistan)
- Joint Rivers Commission (Bangladesh and India)
- Lake Chad Basin Commision (Chad, Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria)
- Lesotho Highlands Water Project (Lesotho, South Africa )
- Mekong River Commission (Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam)
- Moselle Commission (France, Germany, Luxembourg) (French, German)
- Niger Basin Authority (Benin, Bukino Faso, Cameroon, Ivory Coast)
- Nile Basin Initiative (Burundi, D.R. Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Rwanda Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya)
- Orange-Senqu River Commission (Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa)
- Organization of Cooperation for the Development of the Gambia River Basin (Gambia, Guinea, Senegal)
- Organization for the Development of the Senegal River (Mali, Mauritania, Senegal) (French)
- Peipsi Center for Transboundary Cooperation (Estonia, Russia) (Estonian)
- Permanent Indus Commission (India, Pakistan)
- Uruguay River Management Commission (Argentina, Uruguay) (Spanish)
- Zambezi River Authority (Zambia, Zimbabwe)