The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Montego Bay, 10 December 1982), UNCLOS, is intended to govern the use of oceans for fishing, shipping, exploration, navigating and mining. The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is the most comprehensive treaty in public international law and covers a range of Law of the Sea topics, such as delimitation of maritime boundaries, maritime zones, marine environment protection, marine scientific research, arrest of ships, criminal acts at sea (piracy, trafficking) and many more.
Part XI UNCLOS on the legal regime on deep seabed mining used to be a main obstacle for ratification by Western states and blocked the entry into force of the UNCLOS as a whole. After more specific regulations in the 1994 Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of UNCLOS about the commercial exploitation of the deep seabed, more countries were willing to ratify and UNCLOS entered into force in 1994. Although the United States now recognizes the UNCLOS as a codification of customary international law, the US has not yet ratified it.
The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) has jurisdiction over all disputes concerning the interpretation or application of the Convention, subject to the provisions of article 297 and to the declarations made in accordance with article 298 of the Convention. According to art. 138 Rules of the Tribunal ITLOS may also give an advisory opinion on a legal question if this is provided for by "an international agreement related to the purposes of the Convention". Additional to ITLOS, judicial settlement of international law of the sea disputes has also taken place at the International Court of Justice (ICJ), e.g. see the North Sea continental shelf cases and at the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), for example see the Arctic Sunrise Award (Russian Federation v. the Netherlands).
This Research Guide is intended as a starting point for research on Law of the Sea. It provides the basic legal materials available in the Peace Palace Library, both in print and electronic format. Handbooks, leading articles, bibliographies, periodicals, serial publications and documents of interest are presented in the Selective Bibliography section. Links to the PPL Catalogue are inserted. The Library's subject heading (keyword) Law of the Sea are instrumental for searching through the Catalogue. Special attention is given to our subscriptions on databases, e-journals, e-books and other electronic resources. Finally, this Research Guide features links to relevant websites and other online resources of particular interest.
Sources of international law
Treaties
- Convention on the Continental Shelf (Geneva, 29 April 1958)
- United Nations Law of the Sea Convention (Montego Bay, 10 December 1982)
- UNCLOS III and 1994 Implementation Agreement Part XI, UNCLOS
- The United Nations Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks
Collections and compilations of treaties and other documents of international law of the sea
- Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, Office of Legal Affairs, The Law of the Sea: Official Texts of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 and of the Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982: with Index and Excerpts from the Final Act of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, New York, NY, United Nations, 1997.
- International Seabed Authority, The Law of the Sea: Compendium of Basic Documents, Kingston, Jamaica, Caribbean Law Publishing Company, 2001.
- International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea = Tribunal international du Droit de la Mer (ed.), Basic texts = Textes de base, Leiden, Nijhoff, 2005.
- Lowe, V. and S. Talmon, (eds.), The Legal Order of the Oceans: Basic Documents on the Law of the Sea, Oxford, Hart, 2009.
Case-law
- Burri, Th. and Trinidad, J. (eds.),The International Court of Justice and Decolonisation: New Directions from the Chagos Advisory Opinion, Cambridge, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2021.
- García García-Revillo, M., The Contentious and Advisory Jurisdiction of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Leiden, Brill, 2015.
- Horna, Angel V., Law of the sea and maritime delimitation: state practice and case law in Latin America and the Caribbean, Abingdon, Oxon, New York, NY, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2023.
- International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea / Tribunal international du droit de la mer, Digest of Jurisprudence, 1996-2021 = Répertoire de jurisprudence, 1996-2021, Hamburg, ITLOS, 2021.
- International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea / Tribunal International du Droit de la Mer, Pleadings, Minutes of Public Sittings and Documents = Mémoires, procès-verbaux des audiences publiques et documents, Leiden, Brill, 2001-.
- Klein, N. and J. McNally, Compliance with Decisons of the Dispute Settlement Bodies of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, Leiden, Brill, 2023.
- Kolb, R., Perry, A., Case Law on Equitable Maritime Delimitation: Digest and Commentaries = Jurisprudence sur les délimitations maritimes selon l'équité: répertoire et commentaires, The Hague, Nijhoff, 2003.
- Kwiatkowska, B., Decisions of the World Court relevant to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Reference Guide, Leiden, Nijhoff, 2010.
- Laborías, A.R. and Godio, L.M.A., La jurisprudencia del Tribunal Internacional del Derecho del Mar, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Aldina Editorial Digital, 2021.
- Olorundami, F., "Objectivity versus Subjectivity in the Context of the ICJ's Three-stage Methodology of Maritime Boundary Delimitation", The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 32 (2017), No. 1, pp. 36-53.
- Oude Elferink, A.G., Henriksen, T. and Busch, S.V. (eds.), Maritime boundary delimitation: the case law: is it consistent and predictable? Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2018.
- Patel, B.N., Law of the Sea: International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Jurisprudence: Case Commentary, Case-Law, Digest and Reference Guide (1994-2014), Lucknow, Eastern Book Company, 2015.
- Perez, B., "The Permanent Court of Arbitration and its Contribution to Dispute Settlement under the Law of the Sea", L' observateur des Nations Unies: revue de l'Association française pour les Nations Unies, Section Aix-en-Provence, 42 (2017), No. 1, pp. 107-116.
- Sohn, L.B., Noyes, J.E., Franckx, E. and Gustafson, K. (eds.), Cases and Materials on the Law of the Sea, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2014.
- Tanaka, Y., South China Sea arbitration : toward an international legal order in the oceans, Oxford, Hart, 2019.
- Recueil des arrêts, avis consultatifs et ordonnances = Reports of judgments, advisory opinions and orders, Cour Internationale de Justice = International Court of Justice, Leyden, Sijthoff, 1947-.
- Tribunal international du droit de la mer = International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Recueil des arrêts, avis consultatifs et ordonnances ... = Reports of judgments, advisory opinions and orders ..., The Hague, Kluwer Law International, 2000-
For Awards/Judgments on Law of the Sea please take a look at overview pages:
UN Declarations and Resolutions
The resolutions and decisions of the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council may provide valuable information on the law of the sea. Although they cannot themselves constitute international law or serve as conclusive evidence of a rule of customary law, such resolutions do have value in providing evidence of existing or emerging law. This point of view has been acknowledged by the International Law Commission.
As every Member State has been recognized and has a vote in the UN General Assembly, finding General Assembly resolutions that passed unanimously or near-unanimously may serve as an excellent starting point in the legal research process. Pay attention to the language of the resolution. Those with firm obligations versus those that are merely aspirational or advisory in nature are more likely to be considered valuable as evidence of customary international law.
→ Oceans and the Law of the Sea in the General Assembly of the United Nations.
→ Official Document System Search. ODS is the UN's Official Document System. You can search for UN declarations, resolutions and other documents by keywords, then narrow your search.
→ Start Your Research: (7) Resolutions and Decisions of International Organizations.
Reference works
- Brito, W., Moreira, F.C., (eds.), Comentários à Convenção das Nações Unidas sobre Direito do Mar, Coimbra, Almedina, 2022.
- Campanella, V.T. (ed.), Routledge Handbook of Seabed Mining and the Law of the Sea, London, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2024.
- Churchill, R., Lowe, V. and A. Sander, The Law of the Sea, Fourth edition, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2022.
- Fietta, S. and Cleverly, R., Practitioner's Guide to Maritime Boundary Delimitation, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2016.
- Forteau, M. et Thouvenin, J.-M. (eds.), Traité de droit international de la mer, Paris, Pedone, 2017.
- García García-Revillo, M., The Contentious and Advisory Jurisdiction of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2016.
- Jensen, Ø., The Development of the Law of the Sea Convention: the Role of International Courts and Tribunals, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2020.
- Kittichaisaree, K., The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, New York, Oxford University Press, 2021.
- Lando, M., Maritime Delimitation as a Judicial Process, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2019.
- Lee, S. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Ocean Law and Policy in Asia-Pacific, Leiden; Boston: Brill Nijhoff, 2023.
- Nordquist, M.H. (ed.), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) Commentary, 1985-2012.
- Oda, S. Fifty Years of the Law of the Sea: With a Special Section on the International Court of Justice: Selected Writings of Shigeru Oda, Judge of the International Court of Justice, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 2003.
- Pancracio, J.-P., Droit de la mer, Paris, Dalloz, 2010.
- Proelss, A., Maggio, A.R., Blitza, E. and O. Daum (eds.), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, München, Beck; Oxford, Hart, 2017.
- Rao, P.C. and Ph. Gautier, International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea: law, practice and procedure, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2018.
- Rothwell, D. and T. Stephens, The International Law of the Sea, Third edition, Hart, 2023.
- Tanaka, Y., The International Law of the Sea, Fourth Edition, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2023.
- Vitzthum, W.G., und Hafner, G. (eds.), Handbuch des Seerechts, München, Beck, 2006.
Recent books and peer-reviewed articles
- Anderson, W., The Law of the Sea in the Caribbean, Leiden, Boston, Brill, 2022.
- Anthrakefs, G., The right to exploit offshore hydrocarbon in the Southeastern Mediterranean in the light of public international law, Hamburg, Verlag Dr. Kovač, 2023.
- Ascencio-Herrera, A. and Nordquist, M.H. (eds.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Part XI Regime and the International Seabed Authority: a twenty-five year Journey, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2022.
- Caligiuri, A., G. Cataldi and N. Ros (eds.), L’évolution Du Droit De La Mer: Réflexions À l’occasion du 20ème anniversaire de L’assidmer (2001-2021) = the Evolution of the Law of the Sea : Reflections for the 20th Assidmer Anniversary (2001-2021). Editoriale Scientifica, 2023.
- Carballo Piñeiro, L. and M.Q. Mejia (eds.), The Elgar Companion to the Law and Practice of the International Maritime Organization, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2024.
- Chandra, V., The Law of the Sea and Maritime Boundary Disputes in Areas of Hydrocarbon Potential: A Review of Global Hot Spots, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2024.
- De Lucia, V., Oude Elferink, A. and Nguyen L.N., International Law and Marine Areas beyond National Jurisdiction: Reflections on Justice, Space, Knowledge and Power, Leiden, Boston, Brill/Nijhoff, 2022.
- Duan, W., The International Legal Regime relating to Marine Protected Areas in Areas beyond National Jurisdiction: identifying and addressing Gaps, Leiden, Boston , Brill Nijhoff, 2022.
- Ehrle, A., Gubernanz des staatsfreien Raums: eine Untersuchung zu strukturellen Veränderungen des Völkerrechts unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Tiefseebergbauregimes, Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck, 2023.
- Enyew, E.L., Indigenous Peoples, Marine Space and Resources, and International Law: The Interaction between International Human Rights Law and the Law of the Sea. Abingdon, New York, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2024.
- Evans, M.D. and Lewis, R., Islands, Law and Context: The Treatment of Islands in International Law, Cheltenham, Edgar Elgar Publishing, 2023.
- Friedman, S., Global Governance and the International Law of the Sea: The Evolution and Practice of the Continental Shelf Regime, Abingdon, Routledge, 2025.
- Gutiérrez Figueroa, F., La libertad de pesca en la alta mar y sus limitaciones en el derecho internacional contemporáneo, Granada, Comares, 2024.
- Haas, L.J., Fisheries Regulation in the Central Arctic Ocean: Background, Motivations and Aspirations of the 2018 CAOF Agreement, Leiden; Boston: Brill Nijhoff, 2025.
- Jiménez Pineda, E., El Arbitraje Internacional y el Derecho del Mar, Valencia, Tirant lo Blanch, 2022.
- Jones, C. (ed.), Governing Oceans: Policy Development, Implementation and Evaluation, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2024.
- Kamiński, T. and K. Karski (eds.), 40 Years of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: Assessment and Prospects, Abingdon; New York, Routledge, 2025.
- Kardon, I.B. China’s Law of the Sea: The New Rules of Maritime Order, Yale University Press, 2023.
- Klein, N. and Parlett, K., Judging the Law of the Sea: Judicial Contributions to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, First edition, Oxford, UK, New York, NY, Oxford University Press, 2022.
- Klein, N. (ed.), Unconventional Lawmaking in the Law of the Sea, First edition, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2022.
- Kohoutek, K., Inhalt und Grenzen der Freiheit zur Verlegung von Seekabeln, Baden-Baden, Nomos, 2023.
- Krabbe, N. and D. Langlet (eds.), Marine Bioprospecting, Biodiversity and Novel Uses of Ocean Resources: New Approaches in International Law, Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2024.
- Kraska, J. and Yang, H.C. (eds.), Peaceful Management of Maritime Disputes, Abingdon, Oxon, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2023.
- Kunoy, B., T, Heidar and C. Yiallourides, (eds.), International Fisheries Law: Persistent and Emerging Challenges, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2025.
- Lanfranchi, M.-P., La Convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, DICE Éditions, 2024.
- Liao, X., The Continental Shelf Delimitation beyond 200 Nautical Miles: towards a Common Approach to Maritime Boundary-making, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022.
- Lothian, S.L., Marine Conservation and International Law: Legal Instruments for Biodiversity beyond National Jurisdiction, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2023.
- Ma, X.,The Spratly Islands and International Law: Legal Solutions to Coexistence and Cooperation in Disputed Areas, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2022.
- Matz-Lück, N., Jensen, Ø and Johansen, E.(eds.), The Law of the Sea: Normative Context and Interactions with other Legal Regimes, London, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2023.
- Nguyen, L.N., The Development of the Law of the Sea by UNCLOS Dispute Settlement Bodies, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2023.
- Oanta, Gabriela A., editor. The Presence of International Organizations in the Evolution of the International Law of the Sea : Thirty Years since the Entry into Force of UNCLOS. Brill/Nijhoff, 2025.
- Platjouw, F.M. and A. Pozdnakova (eds.),The Environmental Rule of Law for Oceans: Designing Legal Solutions, Cambridge University Press, 2023.
- Roland Holst, R.J., Change in the Law of the Sea: Context, Mechanisms and Practice, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2022.
- Rothwell, D.R., Islands and International Law, Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2022.
- Schultheiss, Christian. Ocean Governance and Conflict in the East and South China Sea : Negotiating Natural Resources, Institutions and Power. Amsterdam University Press, 2024.
- Siig, K., B. Feldtmann and F.M.W. Billing (eds.),The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A System of Regulation, Routledge, 2024.
- Singh, S. and Marwah, R. (eds.), China and the Indo-Pacific: Maneuvers and Manifestations, Palgrave Macmillan Singapore, 2023.
- Sohode, C., Le droit de la délimitation des frontières maritimes africaines, Paris, Harmattan, 2024.
- Sun, L., International Environmental Obligations and Liabilities in Deep Seabed Mining, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2023.
- Sun, Z., Finding a Balance in the Exclusive Economic Zone: Conflict and Stability in the Law of the Sea, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2025.
- Talmon, S., The South China Sea arbitration: jurisdiction, admissibility, procedure, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2022.
- Vrancken, P.H.G., State Ocean Jurisdiction, London, New York, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2023.
- Yu, C., Marine scientific research and the regulation of modern ocean data collection activities under UNCLOS, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2022.
For all peer-reviewed articles in the PPL Catalogue, click here.
Periodicals, serial publications
- Annuaire de droit maritime et oceanique
- Asia-Pacific Journal of Ocean Law and Policy
- Center for Oceans Law and Policy Publications
- International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law
- International Maritime Boundaries, 7 volumes, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1993-
- Journal of International Maritime Law
- Maritime Cooperation in East Asia edited by Seokwoo Lee and Zou Keyuan
- Maritime Safety and Security Law Journal
- Ocean and Coastal Law Journal
- Ocean Development and International Law
- Ocean Yearbook online
- Pleadings, Minutes of Public Sittings and Documents = Mémoires, procès-verbaux des audiences publiques et documents, International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea = Tribunal International du Droit de la Mer, The Hague, Kluwer Law International, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2001-..
- Portuguese Yearbook of the Law of the Sea
- Publications on Ocean Development
- Reports of Judgments, Advisory Opinions and Orders (ITLOS)
- Studies in International Law of the Sea and Maritime Law
- Yearbook (ITLOS)
Bibliographies
- Abegón Novella, M., Maestro Cortizas, A.M. and Vazquez Rodríguez, B., "A Selection of Spanish Bibliography on the Law of the Sea and LOSC (Spain and the Law of the Sea: 20 Years under LOSC)", Spanish yearbook of international law online, 21 (2017), pp. 479-529.
- Jenisch, U. (et al.), Bibliography of German Publications on the International and Public Law of the Sea, 1982-2007, Baden-Baden, Nomos, 2008.
- The Law of the Sea: A Select Bibliography, 2008, New York, NY, United Nations, 2008.
- ASIL Electronic Research Guide on the Law of the Sea, by Barbara Bean
- Brill's International Maritime Boundaries
International Maritime Boundaries Online is an unmatched comprehensive reference for international State practice concerning maritime boundary delimitation, and is used and referenced widely by practitioners of international law. Complete with hyperlinked maps and keyword search functionality, features include a systematic examination of all international maritime boundaries worldwide illustrated with maps and detailed analyses of the status of maritime boundary delimitations in each of the ten regions of the world.
- Brill's Sovereign Limits [More info]
- Brill's United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, edited by Nordquist, M.H., Nandan, S. and Rosenne S.
These Commentaries are based almost entirely on the formal and informal documentation of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III, 1973-1982), coupled, where necessary, with the personal knowledge of editors, contributors, or reviewers, many of whom were principal negotiators or UN personnel who participated in the Conference. The scope and duration of the “Virginia Commentary” project is without precedent as an academic undertaking in the field of international law. The project was conceived by its editors to meet the need - particularly essential in the absence of an official legislative history for the Convention - for an objective and comprehensive analysis of the articles in the Convention and in the Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the Convention that entered into force in 1996.
- Max Planck Encyclopedias of International Law [PPL info] Peer-reviewed article on International Seabed Authority (ISA) by Michael W.Lodge. Article last updated: September 2020.
- Répertoire de droit international: Mer – Droit de la mer: ses traits fondamentaux – Laurent LUCCHINI – Décembre 1998 (actualisation: Janvier 2017)
- Répertoire de droit international: Frontière – Jean-Marc SOREL – Juillet 2017
- Répertoire de droit international: Pêche / Exploitation durable des ressources halieutiques – Pascale RICARD; Michel VOELCKEL – Janvier 2021
- Center for International Maritime Security CIMSEC
- Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS)
- Chronological Lists of Ratifications of Ratifications of, Accessions and Successions to the Convention and the Related Agreements
- EJIL Talk! Blogs about Maritime Delimitation
- Gallagher Law Library, University of Washingtonnternational Law of the Sea
- International Seabed Authority
- International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
- United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea