The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Montego Bay, 10 December 1982), UNCLOS, is intended to govern the use of oceans for fishing, shipping, exploration, navigating and mining. The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is the most comprehensive treaty in public international law and covers a range of Law of the Sea topics, such as delimitation of maritime boundaries, maritime zones, marine environment protection, marine scientific research, arrest of ships, criminal acts at sea (piracy, trafficking) and many more.
Part XI UNCLOS on the legal regime on deep seabed mining used to be a main obstacle for ratification by Western states and blocked the entry into force of the UNCLOS as a whole. After more specific regulations in the 1994 Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of UNCLOS about the commercial exploitation of the deep seabed, more countries were willing to ratify and UNCLOS entered into force in 1994. Although the United States now recognizes the UNCLOS as a codification of customary international law, the US has not yet ratified it.
The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) has jurisdiction over all disputes concerning the interpretation or application of the Convention, subject to the provisions of article 297 and to the declarations made in accordance with article 298 of the Convention. According to art. 138 Rules of the Tribunal ITLOS may also give an advisory opinion on a legal question if this is provided for by "an international agreement related to the purposes of the Convention". Additional to ITLOS, judicial settlement of international law of the sea disputes has also taken place at the International Court of Justice (ICJ), e.g. see the North Sea continental shelf cases and at the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), for example see the Arctic Sunrise Award (Russian Federation v. the Netherlands).
This Research Guide is intended as a starting point for research on Law of the Sea. It provides the basic legal materials available in the Peace Palace Library, both in print and electronic format. Handbooks, leading articles, bibliographies, periodicals, serial publications and documents of interest are presented in the Selective Bibliography section. Links to the PPL Catalogue are inserted. The Library's subject heading (keyword) Law of the Sea are instrumental for searching through the Catalogue. Special attention is given to our subscriptions on databases, e-journals, e-books and other electronic resources. Finally, this Research Guide features links to relevant websites and other online resources of particular interest.
Sources of international law
Treaties
- Convention on the Continental Shelf (Geneva, 29 April 1958)
- United Nations Law of the Sea Convention (Montego Bay, 10 December 1982)
- UNCLOS III and 1994 Implementation Agreement Part XI, UNCLOS
- The United Nations Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks
Collections and compilations of treaties and other documents of international law of the sea
- Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, Office of Legal Affairs, The Law of the Sea: Official Texts of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 and of the Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982: with Index and Excerpts from the Final Act of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, New York, NY, United Nations, 1997.
- International Seabed Authority, The Law of the Sea: Compendium of Basic Documents, Kingston, Jamaica, Caribbean Law Publishing Company, 2001.
- International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea = Tribunal international du Droit de la Mer (ed.), Basic texts = Textes de base, Leiden, Nijhoff, 2005.
- Lowe, V. and S. Talmon, (eds.), The Legal Order of the Oceans: Basic Documents on the Law of the Sea, Oxford, Hart, 2009.
- Tofan, C. (ed.), ITLOS Collection. Basic documents, Oisterwijk, ICA, 2011.
Case-law
- Acikgonul, Y.E. and Lucas, E.R., "Developments in Maritime Delimitation Law over the Last Decade: Emerging Principles in Modern Case Law = Évolution du droit de la délimitation maritime au cours de la dernière décennie: principes émergents de la jurisprudence moderne", The Canadian yearbook of international law, 57 (2019), pp. 156-222.
- Burri, Th. and Trinidad, J. (eds.),The International Court of Justice and Decolonisation: New Directions from the Chagos Advisory Opinion, Cambridge, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2021.
- Churchill, R., "Dispute Settlement in the Law of the Sea: Survey for 2021", 37 (2022), The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, No. 4, pp. 575-609. [online article]
- Churchill, R., "The General Dispute Settlement System of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea: Overview, Context, and Use", Ocean development and international law: the journal of marine affairs, 48 (2017), No. 3-4, pp. 216-238.
- Gao, J.J., "The Delimitation Method for the Continental Shelf Beyond 200 Nautical Miles: A Reflection on the Judicial and Arbitral Decisions", Ocean Development & International Law, 51 (2020), No. 2, pp. 116-142.
- García García-Revillo, M., The Contentious and Advisory Jurisdiction of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Leiden, Brill, 2015.
- Kolb, R., Perry, A., Case Law on Equitable Maritime Delimitation: Digest and Commentaries = Jurisprudence sur les délimitations maritimes selon l'équité: répertoire et commentaires, The Hague, Nijhoff, 2003.
- Kwiatkowska, B., Decisions of the World Court relevant to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Reference Guide, Leiden, Nijhoff, 2010.
- Laborías, A.R. and Godio, L.M.A., La jurisprudencia del Tribunal Internacional del Derecho del Mar, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Aldina Editorial Digital, 2021.
- Liao, X., "The Timor Sea Conciliation under Article 298 and Annex V of UNCLOS: A Critique", Chinese Journal of International Law, 18 (2019), No. 2, pp. 281-325.
- Olorundami, F., "Objectivity versus Subjectivity in the Context of the ICJ's Three-stage Methodology of Maritime Boundary Delimitation", The international journal of marine and coastal law, 32 (2017), No. 1, pp. 36-53.
- Oude Elferink, A.G., Henriksen, T. and Busch, S.V. (eds.), Maritime boundary delimitation: the case law: is it consistent and predictable? Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2018.
- Patel, B.N., Law of the Sea: International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Jurisprudence: Case Commentary, Case-Law, Digest and Reference Guide (1994-2014), Lucknow, Eastern Book Company, 2015.
- Perez, B., "The Permanent Court of Arbitration and its Contribution to Dispute Settlement under the Law of the Sea", L' observateur des Nations Unies: revue de l'Association française pour les Nations Unies, Section Aix-en-Provence, 42 (2017), No. 1, pp. 107-116.
- Sohn, L.B., Noyes, J.E., Franckx, E. and Gustafson, K. (eds.), Cases and Materials on the Law of the Sea, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2014. [e-book]
- Tanaka, Y., South China Sea arbitration : toward an international legal order in the oceans, Oxford, Hart, 2019.
- Recueil des arrêts, avis consultatifs et ordonnances = Reports of judgments, advisory opinions and orders, Cour Internationale de Justice = International Court of Justice, Leyden, Sijthoff, 1947-.
- Tribunal international du droit de la mer = International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Recueil des arrêts, avis consultatifs et ordonnances ... = Reports of judgments, advisory opinions and orders ..., The Hague, Kluwer Law International, 2000-
For Awards/Judgments on Law of the Sea please take a look at overview pages:
UN Declarations and Resolutions
The resolutions and decisions of the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council may provide valuable information on the law of the sea. Although they cannot themselves constitute international law or serve as conclusive evidence of a rule of customary law, such resolutions do have value in providing evidence of existing or emerging law. This point of view has been acknowledged by the International Law Commission.
As every Member State has been recognized and has a vote in the UN General Assembly, finding General Assembly resolutions that passed unanimously or near-unanimously may serve as an excellent starting point in the legal research process. Pay attention to the language of the resolution. Those with firm obligations versus those that are merely aspirational or advisory in nature are more likely to be considered valuable as evidence of customary international law.
→ Oceans and the Law of the Sea in the General Assembly of the United Nations.
→ Official Document System Search. ODS is the UN's Official Document System. You can search for UN declarations, resolutions and other documents by keywords, then narrow your search.
→ Start Your Research: (7) Resolutions and Decisions of International Organizations.
Reference works
- Churchill, R., Lowe, V. and A. Sander, The Law of the Sea, Fourth edition, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2022.
- Fietta, S. and Cleverly, R., Practitioner's Guide to Maritime Boundary Delimitation, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2016.
- Forteau, M. et Thouvenin, J.-M. (eds.), Traité de droit international de la mer, Paris, Pedone, 2017.
- García García-Revillo, M., The Contentious and Advisory Jurisdiction of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2016.
- Jensen, Ø., The Development of the Law of the Sea Convention: the Role of International Courts and Tribunals, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2020.
- Kittichaisaree, K., The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, New York, Oxford University Press, 2021.
- Lando, M., Maritime Delimitation as a Judicial Process, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2019.
- Nordquist, M.H. (ed.), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) Commentary, 1985-2012.
- Oda, S. Fifty Years of the Law of the Sea: With a Special Section on the International Court of Justice: Selected Writings of Shigeru Oda, Judge of the International Court of Justice, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 2003.
- Pancracio, J.-P., Droit de la mer, Paris, Dalloz, 2010.
- Proelss, A., Maggio, A.R., Blitza, E. and Daum, O. (eds.), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, München, Beck; Oxford, Hart, 2017.
- Rao, P.C. and Gautier, Ph., International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea: law, practice and procedure, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2018.
- Rothwell, D.R., Oude Elferink, A.G., Scott, K.N. and Stephens, T. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Law of the Sea, First edition, Oxford, New York, Oxford University Press, 2015.
- Tanaka, Y., The International Law of the Sea, Third Edition, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2019.
- Vitzthum, W.G., und Hafner, G. (eds.), Handbuch des Seerechts, München, Beck, 2006.
Selected books and articles
- Anderson, W., The Law of the Sea in the Caribbean, Leiden, Boston, Brill, 2022.
- Anthrakefs, G., The right to exploit offshore hydrocarbon in the Southeastern Mediterranean in the light of public international law, Hamburg, Verlag Dr. Kovač, 2023.
- Ascencio-Herrera, A. and Nordquist, M.H. (eds.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Part XI Regime and the International Seabed Authority: a twenty-five year Journey, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2022.
- Aurescu, B., Pellet, A., Thouvenin, J.-M., et Gâlea, I. (eds.), Actualité du droit des mers fermées et semi-fermées, Paris, Pedone, 2019.
- Banet,C. (ed.), The Law of the Seabed: Access, Uses, and Protection of Seabed Resources, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2020.
- Boré Eveno, V., "L' interprétation de l'article 121 de la Convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer par la Cour internationale de Justice", in Del Vecchio, A. and Virzo, R. (eds.), Interpretations of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea by international courts and tribunals, Cham, Springer, 2019, pp. 59-77.
- Caron, D. and Oral, N. (eds.), Navigating Straits: Challenges for International Law, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2014.
- Castillo, L. del (ed.), Law of the sea, from Grotius to the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea: Liber Amicorum Judge Hugo Caminos, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2015.
- De Herdt, S., "Judges ad hoc and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea: An Overview of its Practice", Journal of International Dispute Settlement, 11 (2020), No. 3, pp. 438-458. [e-article]
- De Lucia, V., Oude Elferink, A. and Nguyen L.N., International Law and Marine Areas beyond National Jurisdiction: Reflections on Justice, Space, Knowledge and Power, Leiden, Boston, Brill/Nijhoff, 2022.
- Del Vecchio, A. and R. Virzo (eds.), Interpretations of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea by International Courts and Tribunals, Cham, Springer, 2019.
- Dingwall, J., International Law and Corporate Actors in Deep Seabed Mining, Oxford, OUP, 2021.
- Duan, W., The International Legal Regime relating to Marine Protected Areas in Areas beyond National Jurisdiction: identifying and addressing Gaps, Leiden, Boston , Brill Nijhoff, 2022.
- Espósito, C., Kraska, J., Scheiber, H.N. and Kwon, M-S. (eds.), Ocean Law and Policy : 20 Years under UNCLOS, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2017.
- Freestone, D.A.C. and Schofield, C., "Pacific Islands Countries declare Permanent Maritime Baselines, Limits and Boundaries", The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, Vol. 36 (2021), No. 4, pp. 685-695.
- Freestone, D.A.C., Barnes, R. and Akhavan, P., "Agreement for the Establishment of the Commission of Small Island States on Climate Change and International Law (COSIS)", The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 37 (2022), No. 1, pp. 166-178.
- Godio, L.M.A. (comp.), El sistema de solución de controversias de la Convención de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Derecho del Mar: contribuciones de su experiencia, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires, 2019.
- Heidar, T. (ed.), New Knowledge and Changing Circumstances in the Law of the Sea, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2020.
- Harris, P.G, Climate change and ocean governance : politics and policy for threatened seas, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2019.
- Ivanova, E., The competing jurisdictions of the WTO and the UNCLOS dispute settlement fora in the context of multifaceted disputes,Studies of the Max Planck Institute Luxembourg for International, European and Regulatory Procedural Law, Baden-Baden, Nomos, 2021.
- Janusz-Pawletta, B., The legal status of the Caspian Sea: current challenges and prospects for future development, Second edition Berlin, Springer, 2021.
- Jiménez Pineda, E., El Arbitraje Internacional y el Derecho del Mar, Valencia, Tirant lo Blanch, 2022.
- Johansen, E., Busch, S. and Jakobsen, I.U. (eds.), The Law of the Sea and Climate Change: Solutions and Constraints, Cambridge, CUP, 2021.
- Kamiński, T., "The Legal Status of Historic Bays in the Light of the Works of the League of Nations Committee of Experts for the Progressive Codification of International Law", Journal of the History of International Law, 24 (2022), No. 1, pp. 36-61.
- Khalilieh, H.S., Islamic Law of the Sea: Freedom of Navigation and Passage Rights in Islamic Thought, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2019. [e-book]
- Klein, N. (ed.), Unconventional Lawmaking in the Law of the Sea, First edition, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2022.
- Koh, T., Seah, S. (ed.), Building a New Legal Order for the Oceans, Singapore, NUS Press, 2020.
- Liao, X., The Continental Shelf Delimitation beyond 200 Nautical Miles: towards a Common Approach to Maritime Boundary-making, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022.
- Liao, X.,, "The Road not taken: Submission of Disputes Concerning Activities in Undelimited Maritime Areas to UNCLOS Compulsory Procedures", Ocean Development & International Law, Vol. 52 (2021), No. 3, pp. 297-324.
- Matz-Lück, N., Jensen, Ø and Johansen, E.(eds.), The Law of the Sea: Normative Context and Interactions with other Legal Regimes, London, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2023.
- Mossop, J., The Continental Shelf beyond 200 Nautical Miles: Rights and Responsibilities, Oxford, New York, Oxford University Press, 2016. [e-book]
- Mühlendahl, P. von, L'équidistance dans la délimitation des frontières maritimes: étude de la jurisprudence internationale, Paris, Editions Pedone, 2016.
- Murphy, S.D., International Law relating to Islands, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2017.
- Nordquist, M.H., Moore, J.N. and Long, R. (eds.), Legal Order in the World's Oceans: UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2018.
- Palestini, L., La protection des intérêts juridiques de l'État tiers dans le procès de délimitation maritime, Bruxelles, Bruylant, 2020.
- Papastavridis, E., "The Negotiations for a New Implementing Agreement Under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea Concerning Marine Biodiversity", The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 69 (2020), No. 3, pp. 585-610.
- Payne, C.R., New Law for the High Seas", Berkeley Journal of International Law, 37 (2019), No. 2, pp. 345-368.
- Pecoraro, A., "The Regulatory Powers of the International Seabed Authority: Security of Tenure and Its Limits," Ocean Development & International Law, 53 (2022), No.4, pp. 377-402.
- Purcell, K., Geographical Change and the Law of the Sea, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2020. [e-book]
- Ribeiro, M.C., Bastos, F.L. and Henriksen, T. (eds.), Global Challenges and the Law of the Sea, Cham, Springer, 2020.
- Roach, J.A., Excessive Maritime Claims, Fourth edition, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2021.
- Roland Holst, R.J., Change in the Law of the Sea: Context, Mechanisms and Practice, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2022.
- Rothwell, D.R., Islands and International Law, Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2022.
- Singh, S. and Marwah, R. (eds.), China and the Indo-Pacific: Maneuvers and Manifestations, Palgrave Macmillan Singapore, 2023.
- Société française pour le droit international, Iles et droit international: journée d'études de Paris, Paris, Pedone, 2020.
- Talmon, S., The South China Sea arbitration: jurisdiction, admissibility, procedure, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2022. [e-book]
- Vincent, P., Droit de la mer, 2. édition, Bruxelles, Bruylant, 2020.
- Wold, C., "Combatting IUU Fishing and Improving the Long-Term Conservation of Fish Stocks: Increasing Transparency in Regional Fisheries Management Organizations", Fordham international law journal, 44 (2021), No. 4, pp. 967-1027.
- Wyssbrod, V., L'exploitation des ressources génétiques marines hors juridiction nationale, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2018.
- Yiallourides, C., Maritime disputes and international law: disputed waters and seabed resources in Asia and Europe, Abingdon, Routledge, 2019.
- Yu, C., Marine scientific research and the regulation of modern ocean data collection activities under UNCLOS, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2022.
- Yu, C., "Implications of the UNCLOS Marine Scientific Research Regime for the Current Negotiations on Access and Benefit Sharing of Marine Genetic Resources in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction", Ocean Development and International Law, 51 (2020), No. 1, pp. 2-18.
- Zacharias, M. and Ardron, J., Marine Policy: an Introduction to Governance and International Law of the Oceans, Second edition, London, Earthscan from Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2020.
- Zou, K. (ed.), The Belt and Road Initiative and the Law of the Sea, Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2020.
Periodicals, serial publications
- Annuaire de droit maritime et oceanique
- Asia-Pacific Journal of Ocean Law and Policy
- Center for Oceans Law and Policy Publications
- International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law
- International Maritime Boundaries, 7 volumes, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1993-
- Journal of International Maritime Law
- Maritime Cooperation in East Asia edited by Seokwoo Lee and Zou Keyuan
- Ocean and Coastal Law Journal
- Ocean Development and International Law
- Ocean Yearbook online
- Pleadings, Minutes of Public Sittings and Documents = Mémoires, procès-verbaux des audiences publiques et documents, International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea = Tribunal International du Droit de la Mer, The Hague, Kluwer Law International, Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2001-..
- Publications on Ocean Development
- Reports of Judgments, Advisory Opinions and Orders (ITLOS)
- Studies in International Law of the Sea and Maritime Law
- Yearbook (ITLOS)
Bibliographies
- Abegón Novella, M., Maestro Cortizas, A.M. and Vazquez Rodríguez, B., "A Selection of Spanish Bibliography on the Law of the Sea and LOSC (Spain and the Law of the Sea: 20 Years under LOSC)", Spanish yearbook of international law online, 21 (2017), pp. 479-529.
- Jenisch, U. (et al.), Bibliography of German Publications on the International and Public Law of the Sea, 1982-2007, Baden-Baden, Nomos, 2008.
- The Law of the Sea: A Select Bibliography, 2008, New York, NY, United Nations, 2008.
- ASIL Electronic Research Guide on the Law of the Sea, by Barbara Bean
- Brill's International Maritime Boundaries
International Maritime Boundaries Online is an unmatched comprehensive reference for international State practice concerning maritime boundary delimitation, and is used and referenced widely by practitioners of international law. Complete with hyperlinked maps and keyword search functionality, features include a systematic examination of all international maritime boundaries worldwide illustrated with maps and detailed analyses of the status of maritime boundary delimitations in each of the ten regions of the world. Start your research here.
- Brill's United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, edited by Nordquist, M.H., Nandan, S. and Rosenne S.
These Commentaries are based almost entirely on the formal and informal documentation of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III, 1973-1982), coupled, where necessary, with the personal knowledge of editors, contributors, or reviewers, many of whom were principal negotiators or UN personnel who participated in the Conference. The scope and duration of the “Virginia Commentary” project is without precedent as an academic undertaking in the field of international law. The project was conceived by its editors to meet the need - particularly essential in the absence of an official legislative history for the Convention - for an objective and comprehensive analysis of the articles in the Convention and in the Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the Convention that entered into force in 1996.
-
Répertoire de droit international: Frontière – Jean-Marc SOREL – Juillet 2017
- Max Planck Encyclopedias of International Law [PPL info]
[PPL access] Law of the Sea (subject) [Entries: 898]
[PPL access] Peer-reviewed article on International Seabed Authority (ISA) by Michael W.Lodge. Article last updated: September 2020.
[PPL access] Law of the Sea (subject) [Entries 148]
- Center for International Maritime Security CIMSEC
- Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS)
- Chronological Lists of Ratifications of Ratifications of, Accessions and Successions to the Convention and the Related Agreements
- EJIL Talk! Blogs about Maritime Delimitation
- Gallagher Law Library, University of Washingtonnternational Law of the Sea
- International Seabed Authority
- International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
- United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea